Suppression of Christianity in Japan

Introduction

The history of Christianity in Japan is marked by acceptance and suppression. Picture Japanese converts huddled together in secret meetings. They shared whispered prayers and stories of hope amidst the threat of discovery. This contrast between faith and fear encapsulates Christianity’s struggle in Japan.

In the mid-16th century, European missionaries like Francis Xavier brought Christianity to Japan. Initially, it found a warm reception among certain segments, including influential daimyos. However, this period of growth was short-lived. By the early 17th century, the Japanese government began a systematic campaign to eradicate Christianity.

The suppression was not isolated incidents but a sustained effort spanning centuries. This campaign profoundly impacted Japanese society. It influenced its cultural, political, and social landscapes. From initial suspicion to brutal persecution, Christianity’s story in Japan is one of resilience and endurance.

This blog post delves into Christianity’s suppression in Japan. We explore early missionary work and political shifts leading to persecution. We examine the experiences of those who suffered for their faith. Finally, we discuss Christianity’s resurgence in the modern era.

Understanding this history provides insight into broader themes. We learn about religious tolerance, cultural exchange, and the enduring human spirit.

Background of Christianity in Japan

Early Introduction

Christianity first arrived in Japan in 1549, brought by Jesuit missionaries led by Francis Xavier, a co-founder of the Society of Jesus. The missionaries’ journey to Japan was part of a broader effort by the Catholic Church to spread Christianity across Asia. Xavier and his companions were well-received by the local populations and managed to establish a foothold in the southern regions of Japan, particularly in the areas around Kagoshima.

Key Figures

Francis Xavier, often called the Apostle of the Indies, played a pivotal role in introducing Christianity to Japan. His initial efforts laid the groundwork for future missionaries, who continued to build on his success. Xavier’s charisma and dedication made a significant impression on the Japanese people, and his legacy endured long after his departure from Japan in 1551.

Another crucial figure was Alessandro Valignano, an Italian Jesuit who arrived in Japan in the late 1570s. Valignano’s emphasis on cultural adaptation and respect for Japanese customs helped the missionaries to integrate more effectively into Japanese society. His policies allowed for a more significant and more sustained Christian presence in the country.

Initial Reception

The initial reception of Christianity in Japan was largely positive. Many daimyos, the powerful regional lords, saw an opportunity in the new religion and the accompanying Western technology and trade it brought. Notable among these was Ōtomo Sōrin, the daimyo of Bungo Province, who converted to Christianity and became a significant patron of the missionaries.

The Jesuits’ approach of engaging with the local culture, learning the Japanese language, and adopting Japanese customs facilitated the spread of Christianity. They built schools, churches, and hospitals, and their knowledge of Western science and technology further enhanced their appeal.

The Rise of Christianity

Growth and Influence

During the latter half of the 16th century, Christianity experienced remarkable growth in Japan. After Francis Xavier’s initial mission, the Jesuits continued to spread the faith with increasing success. By the 1580s, there were approximately 150,000 Japanese Christians, a significant number given the country’s population at the time. The missionaries’ strategy of focusing on influential daimyos and their domains proved effective, as conversions among the elite often led to wider acceptance among the general populace.

Christian Daimyos

The conversion of several powerful daimyos played a crucial role in the rise of Christianity. These Christian daimyos not only adopted the faith themselves but also actively promoted it within their territories. Among the most notable were:

• Ōtomo Sōrin: The daimyo of Bungo Province, who converted to Christianity in 1578. Ōtomo’s support for the Jesuits facilitated the establishment of numerous churches and schools in his domain. His conversion set a precedent for other daimyos and helped legitimize the Christian faith among the Japanese elite.
• Arima Harunobu: Another prominent Christian daimyo, Arima Harunobu ruled the domain of Arima in Hizen Province. His conversion and subsequent support for the missionaries contributed to the spread of Christianity in Kyushu.
• Konishi Yukinaga: Known for his role in the Japanese invasions of Korea, Konishi Yukinaga was a fervent Christian who used his influence to support the Jesuits and protect Christian converts in his domain.

These daimyos provided not only protection but also financial support to the missionaries, enabling the construction of churches, schools, and hospitals. Their patronage was instrumental in the rapid spread of Christianity during this period.

Cultural Exchange

The rise of Christianity in Japan coincided with a period of significant cultural exchange between Japan and Europe. The Jesuits, in addition to their religious activities, brought with them Western knowledge and technology. This included advancements in medicine, astronomy, mathematics, and engineering. The introduction of Western firearms and shipbuilding techniques, for example, had a profound impact on Japanese military and maritime capabilities.

• Art and Music: The missionaries introduced Western art forms, which began to influence Japanese artists. This led to the development of unique artistic styles that blended Japanese and European elements. Similarly, Western music, particularly liturgical music, found a place in Japanese society, contributing to a rich cultural exchange.
• Education: Jesuit schools became centers of learning where Japanese students could study both Western and traditional Japanese subjects. This educational exchange fostered a greater understanding between the two cultures and helped spread European scientific knowledge.

The rise of Christianity in Japan was a period of dynamic growth and cultural exchange, characterized by the interplay between religious fervor and pragmatic adaptation. The support of powerful daimyos, combined with the Jesuits’ strategic and respectful approach, allowed Christianity to flourish for a time. This era set the stage for the subsequent challenges and ultimate suppression of the faith, highlighting the complex relationship between religion, politics, and culture in Japan.

Beginnings of Suppression

Political Concerns

The initial enthusiasm for Christianity in Japan began to wane as political concerns over foreign influence grew. The rise of Christianity coincided with a period of significant political turmoil and consolidation in Japan. The country was moving towards unification under a central authority, which brought about a heightened awareness of foreign powers and their potential influence on internal affairs. The ruling class began to view the increasing number of Christian converts and the growing influence of European missionaries with suspicion.

Oda Nobunaga: Initial Tolerance

Oda Nobunaga, one of the key figures in the unification of Japan, initially showed tolerance towards Christianity. He saw the Jesuits as useful allies in his efforts to diminish the power of the Buddhist institutions, which were major political and military rivals. Nobunaga’s relatively open policy towards the missionaries allowed Christianity to flourish during his rule. However, Nobunaga’s assassination in 1582 marked the beginning of a shift in policy.

Toyotomi Hideyoshi: Shift in Policy

Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who succeeded Nobunaga, initially continued the policy of tolerance. However, as he consolidated power, Hideyoshi’s attitude towards Christianity changed. Several factors contributed to this shift:

• Political Unity and Control: As Hideyoshi worked towards unifying Japan, he became increasingly wary of any potential threats to his authority. The growing influence of foreign missionaries and their close ties with certain daimyos raised concerns about their loyalty and the possibility of foreign intervention.
• Economic Concerns: Hideyoshi was also concerned about the economic implications of the growing Christian presence, particularly the potential for European powers to gain control over Japan’s trade.
• Social Order: The spread of Christianity was seen as a disruptive force in the established social order. The missionaries often challenged traditional Japanese beliefs and practices, which could undermine the existing hierarchy and cultural norms.

In 1587, Hideyoshi issued the first anti-Christian edict, banning missionary activities and ordering the expulsion of Jesuit missionaries. Although the enforcement of this edict was initially lax, it signaled a significant change in the government’s stance towards Christianity.

The beginnings of the suppression of Christianity in Japan were marked by a shift from tolerance to outright hostility. Political, economic, and social concerns drove the ruling authorities to view Christianity as a threat, leading to severe persecution and martyrdom. This period set the stage for the more extensive and brutal suppression that would follow under the Tokugawa shogunate, highlighting the complexities of religious, political, and cultural dynamics in Japan.

Intensification Under Tokugawa Shogunate

Tokugawa Ieyasu: Edicts Against Christianity

Tokugawa Ieyasu, the founder of the Tokugawa shogunate, initially adopted a somewhat pragmatic approach towards Christianity, similar to his predecessors. However, as he consolidated power and established the Tokugawa regime, he increasingly viewed Christianity as a threat to the stability and unity of Japan. The Tokugawa shogunate, which began in 1603, marked the start of a more organized and systematic suppression of Christianity.

• 1614 Edict: In 1614, Ieyasu issued a comprehensive edict that banned Christianity entirely. The edict ordered the expulsion of all missionaries and prohibited Japanese from practicing Christianity. This decree marked the beginning of a coordinated effort to eradicate Christianity from Japan.
• Reasons Behind the Policy: Ieyasu’s decision was influenced by several factors:
  • Political Control: The centralization of power under the Tokugawa shogunate required strict control over all aspects of society. Christianity, with its allegiance to a foreign power (the Pope), was seen as a direct challenge to this control.
  • Foreign Influence: The growing presence of European traders and missionaries was perceived as a potential threat to Japan’s sovereignty. The shogunate was particularly wary of the Spanish and Portuguese, who were seen as agents of colonial expansion.
  • Social Stability: Christianity’s egalitarian message and its challenge to traditional Japanese religious and social structures were seen as disruptive to the established order.

Persecutions and Martyrdoms

The enforcement of the 1614 edict led to widespread persecution of Christians. The Tokugawa authorities employed various methods to root out and punish believers, ranging from public executions to more subtle forms of repression.

• Executions and Torture: Christians who refused to renounce their faith were subjected to brutal torture and public executions. Methods included crucifixion, burning at the stake, and the infamous “pit” method, where victims were suspended upside down in pits filled with excrement.
• Fumi-e: One of the most notable methods used to identify Christians was the practice of fumi-e. This involved requiring suspected Christians to step on images of Jesus Christ or the Virgin Mary as a way of proving their rejection of the faith. Those who refused were arrested and often executed.

Shimabara Rebellion (1637-1638)

The Shimabara Rebellion was a significant event that underscored the depth of Christian resistance and the severity of the Tokugawa response. The rebellion took place in the Shimabara Peninsula and Amakusa Islands, regions with large concentrations of Christian peasants.

• Causes of the Rebellion: The rebellion was fueled by a combination of economic hardship, heavy taxation, and religious persecution. Many of the rebels were Christian peasants who had suffered under the oppressive policies of the local daimyo, Matsukura Katsuie.
• The Rebellion: The rebels, numbering around 37,000, took up arms and fortified themselves in Hara Castle. They endured a lengthy siege by the shogunate’s forces, which included both samurai and Dutch cannons.
• Suppression: The rebellion was brutally suppressed after several months. When Hara Castle fell, the shogunate’s forces massacred almost all of the rebels, including women and children. The aftermath of the rebellion saw even harsher measures taken against Christians.

The intensification of the suppression of Christianity under the Tokugawa shogunate represents one of the most dramatic periods of religious persecution in history. The shogunate’s systematic and ruthless measures effectively eradicated Christianity as a public faith for over two centuries, forcing the remaining believers into secrecy. This period of intense persecution had profound effects on Japanese society, shaping its cultural and religious landscape in ways that are still felt today.

Isolation and Enforcement of the Ban

Sakoku Policy: National Seclusion

The Tokugawa shogunate’s response to the perceived threat of Christianity and foreign influence culminated in the implementation of the sakoku (closed country) policy in the early 17th century. This policy effectively isolated Japan from most of the world, restricting foreign trade and interaction to a few tightly controlled points.

• Implementation of Sakoku: Officially established in 1639, the sakoku policy prohibited Japanese from traveling abroad and foreigners from entering Japan. The only exceptions were a limited number of Dutch and Chinese traders who were allowed to operate under stringent regulations on Dejima, a small artificial island in Nagasaki Harbor.
• Motivations: The primary motivation behind the sakoku policy was to eliminate foreign influence, particularly that of European missionaries and their perceived threat to the shogunate’s authority and Japan’s cultural integrity. By restricting contact with the outside world, the shogunate aimed to maintain control and ensure the stability of Japanese society.

Fumi-e: Religious Tests

To enforce the ban on Christianity, the Tokugawa shogunate employed the practice of fumi-e, a method designed to identify hidden Christians (Kakure Kirishitan) and force them to renounce their faith.

• The Process: Fumi-e involved requiring suspected Christians to step on images of Jesus Christ or the Virgin Mary. Those who complied were deemed loyal to the shogunate and free from Christian influence. Those who refused or hesitated were arrested, tortured, and often executed.
• Psychological Impact: The fumi-e practice instilled fear and mistrust within communities, as individuals were forced to publicly demonstrate their loyalty to the shogunate and renounce their faith. This practice not only served as a means of identifying Christians but also as a tool of psychological control and intimidation.

Hidden Christians (Kakure Kirishitan)

Despite the shogunate’s efforts to eradicate Christianity, many believers continued to practice their faith in secret. These hidden Christians developed unique ways to maintain their religious practices while avoiding detection.

• Adaptation and Secrecy: Hidden Christians adapted their rituals to blend with traditional Japanese customs. They often disguised Christian symbols and prayers with Buddhist and Shinto elements, creating a syncretic form of worship that allowed them to continue practicing their faith without arousing suspicion.
• Oral Traditions: To preserve their beliefs, hidden Christians relied on oral traditions and clandestine gatherings. Knowledge of Christian teachings, prayers, and hymns was passed down through generations in secret, ensuring the survival of their faith.

The isolation and enforcement of the ban on Christianity during the Tokugawa shogunate represent one of the most intense periods of religious persecution in Japanese history. The shogunate’s efforts to eliminate Christianity and isolate Japan from foreign influence had profound and lasting effects, shaping the country’s religious and cultural landscape for centuries. The survival of the hidden Christians and the eventual reemergence of Christianity highlight the enduring power of faith and resilience in the face of adversity.

Impact on Japanese Society

Cultural and Religious Homogeneity

The suppression of Christianity under the Tokugawa shogunate led to a period of cultural and religious homogeneity in Japan. By eradicating foreign religious influences, the shogunate reinforced the dominance of traditional Japanese religions, particularly Shinto and Buddhism.

• Promotion of Shinto and Buddhism: The shogunate actively promoted Shinto and Buddhism as the state religions, integrating them into the fabric of Japanese society. Temples and shrines received state support, and their rituals and festivals became central to community life.
• National Identity: The emphasis on traditional religions helped to foster a strong sense of national identity and cultural unity. The shogunate used Shinto, in particular, to legitimize its rule and promote the idea of the divine origin of the emperor and the state.

Social Control and Stability

The suppression of Christianity was also a tool for maintaining social control and stability. The Tokugawa shogunate sought to eliminate any potential threats to its authority, and Christianity, with its foreign origins and allegiance to a higher power, was seen as a destabilizing influence.

• Surveillance and Informants: The use of informants and surveillance to root out hidden Christians created an atmosphere of fear and mistrust. This network of informants extended beyond religious matters, helping the shogunate maintain control over other aspects of society as well.
• Legal and Social Measures: The enforcement of the ban on Christianity included harsh legal penalties and social ostracism for those found practicing the faith. These measures served as a deterrent to others and reinforced the authority of the shogunate.

Long-Term Psychological and Social Effects

The persecution of Christians and the enforcement of the sakoku policy had lasting psychological and social effects on Japanese society.

• Fear and Mistrust: The intense surveillance and harsh punishments fostered an environment of fear and mistrust. Communities were divided, and individuals were often forced to betray their friends and neighbors to avoid persecution.
• Legacy of Resistance: The resilience of the hidden Christians became a symbol of resistance and endurance. Their story is a testament to the strength of faith and the human spirit in the face of oppression.

The impact of the suppression of Christianity on Japanese society is multifaceted, touching on aspects of culture, religion, social control, and national identity. The shogunate’s efforts to eliminate foreign influences and maintain stability left a lasting legacy of cultural homogeneity and social control. However, the resilience of the hidden Christians and their ability to adapt and preserve their faith in secret also highlight the enduring power of belief and the human spirit. Today, this complex history is remembered and reflected upon, contributing to a richer understanding of Japan’s cultural and religious landscape.

The Meiji Restoration and the End of Suppression

Opening of Japan

The mid-19th century marked the end of Japan’s isolationist policies and the beginning of significant political, social, and cultural transformations. This period of change was driven by both internal and external pressures.

• Arrival of Commodore Perry: In 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry of the United States Navy arrived in Japan with a fleet of ships, demanding the opening of Japanese ports to American trade. The subsequent signing of the Treaty of Kanagawa in 1854 marked the end of Japan’s isolation and the beginning of its engagement with the Western world.
• Pressure from Western Powers: Following Perry’s mission, other Western nations, including Britain, France, and Russia, sought similar treaties with Japan. The influx of foreign influence and the unequal treaties imposed on Japan highlighted the need for modernization and reform.

The Meiji Restoration

The dissatisfaction with the Tokugawa shogunate’s handling of foreign relations and the desire for modernization led to the Meiji Restoration in 1868. This event marked the restoration of imperial rule under Emperor Meiji and the beginning of a period of rapid modernization and Westernization.

• Political and Social Reforms: The new Meiji government implemented a series of sweeping reforms aimed at modernizing Japan’s political, economic, and social structures. Feudal domains were abolished, and a centralized government was established.
• Westernization and Modernization: The Meiji leaders recognized the need to adopt Western technology and practices to strengthen Japan. This included reforms in education, industry, and the military, as well as the adoption of Western legal and political systems.

Legalization and Recognition of Christianity

One of the significant changes brought about by the Meiji Restoration was the lifting of the ban on Christianity. As Japan sought to modernize and integrate with the international community, it recognized the need to ensure religious freedom.

• Edict of Toleration (1873): In 1873, the Meiji government officially lifted the ban on Christianity, allowing missionaries to return and Japanese Christians to practice their faith openly. This marked the end of centuries of persecution and the beginning of a new era for Christianity in Japan.
• Return of Missionaries: With the lifting of the ban, foreign missionaries, primarily from Europe and the United States, returned to Japan to rebuild the Christian community. They established churches, schools, and hospitals, contributing to the social and educational development of the country.

Rebuilding the Christian Community

The end of persecution allowed the Christian community in Japan to rebuild and grow. Missionaries and Japanese converts worked together to reestablish the faith and integrate it into the rapidly modernizing society.

• Construction of Churches: New churches were built across Japan, providing places of worship and community for Christians. Many of these churches also served as centers for education and social services.
• Educational Institutions: Christian missionaries established schools and universities, which played a significant role in the modernization of Japan’s education system. These institutions provided a Western-style education and were instrumental in producing a new generation of Japanese leaders.

Modern Day: Christianity in Japan

Today, Christianity is a legally recognized and practiced religion in Japan, though it remains a minority faith. The legacy of the hidden Christians and the history of persecution continue to be remembered and respected.

• Current Status: While Christians make up a small percentage of Japan’s population, their presence is felt in various aspects of society. Christian churches, schools, and hospitals continue to operate and contribute to the social and cultural fabric of the country.
• Cultural Heritage: The sites and artifacts associated with the hidden Christians have been recognized as important cultural heritage. These sites, including the churches and villages where hidden Christians practiced their faith, are now preserved and celebrated for their historical significance.
• Interfaith Dialogue: The history of Christian persecution and the subsequent recognition of religious freedom have contributed to a broader dialogue about religious tolerance in Japan. This has fostered greater understanding and cooperation between different religious communities.

Legacy of Persecution

The history of the suppression and eventual acceptance of Christianity in Japan offers valuable lessons about resilience, adaptation, and the importance of religious freedom.

• Resilience and Adaptation: The story of the hidden Christians is a testament to the resilience of faith and the ability to adapt in the face of adversity. Their survival and the preservation of their beliefs through centuries of persecution are remarkable.
• Importance of Religious Freedom: The lifting of the ban on Christianity and the subsequent growth of the faith highlight the importance of religious freedom in fostering a diverse and inclusive society. Japan’s journey from persecution to acceptance serves as a powerful reminder of the need to protect and respect religious diversity.

The Meiji Restoration and the end of the suppression of Christianity marked a significant turning point in Japanese history. The legalization and recognition of Christianity allowed the faith to flourish once again, contributing to the social and cultural development of Japan. Today, the legacy of the hidden Christians and the history of religious persecution continue to be remembered, offering valuable insights into the importance of resilience, adaptation, and religious freedom.

Conclusion

The history of Christianity in Japan is complex, marked by growth, intense persecution, and eventual acceptance. Jesuit missionaries arrived in the mid-16th century. The Tokugawa shogunate’s brutal suppression followed, but faith resurged during the Meiji Restoration.

Figures like Francis Xavier and supportive daimyos drove Christianity’s initial spread. This facilitated significant cultural exchange between Japan and the West. Political concerns and perceived foreign threats led to systematic suppression. Practices like fumi-e and brutal torture highlighted the Tokugawa shogunate’s control measures.

Despite persecution, hidden Christians (Kakure Kirishitan) showed remarkable resilience. They adapted by blending Christian and traditional Japanese elements. This allowed them to preserve their faith across generations. The Meiji Restoration marked a turning point, lifting the ban on Christianity. This allowed the faith to reestablish and grow.

Today, the legacy of suppression and hidden Christians’ resilience are remembered and respected. Christianity remains a minority religion in Japan but contributes culturally and socially. The story underscores religious freedom, tolerance, and diversity’s importance in modern society.

Reflecting on this history provides valuable insights. We learn about religious and cultural dynamics and political policies’ impact on communities. The journey of Christianity in Japan reminds us of faith’s power. It highlights cultural exchange’s importance and the need to protect religious freedoms. This fosters a more inclusive and understanding world.

References

Books and Articles

1. “Japan and the Jesuits: Alessandro Valignano in Sixteenth Century Japan” by J.F. Moran
   • This book provides an in-depth look at the Jesuit missions in Japan and the impact of figures like Alessandro Valignano on Japanese society and the spread of Christianity.
2. “Christianity in Early Modern Japan: Kirishitan Belief and Practice” by Ikuo Higashibaba
   • Higashibaba explores the religious practices and beliefs of early Japanese Christians, offering a comprehensive overview of how Christianity was integrated and adapted within Japanese culture.
3. “The Japanese and the Jesuits: Alessandro Valignano and the Early Years of Christianity in Japan” by Michael Cooper
   • This work focuses on the early years of the Jesuit mission in Japan and the role of Alessandro Valignano in navigating cultural differences to promote Christianity.
4. “The Bells of Nagasaki” by Takashi Nagai
   • Written by a survivor of the Nagasaki atomic bombing, this book provides a unique perspective on the legacy of Christianity in Nagasaki, a city with a significant Christian population.
5. “Hidden Christians in Japan: A Study of the Early Modern Kirishitan Movement” by John Dougill
   • Dougill’s book examines the hidden Christians (Kakure Kirishitan) and their secret practices, offering insights into their survival and adaptation over centuries of persecution.

Online Resources

1. Nagasaki Peace Church Homepage
   • A comprehensive resource on the history of Christianity in Nagasaki, including the story of the 26 Martyrs and the city’s Christian heritage.
   • Nagasaki Peace Church
2. The Kirishitan History Museum
   • This museum’s website provides extensive information on the hidden Christians and the persecution of Christianity in Japan.
   • Kirishitan History Museum
3. The Vatican Archives
   • The Vatican Archives contain a wealth of primary sources and documents related to the Jesuit missions in Japan, including letters and reports from missionaries.
   • Vatican Archives
4. Smithsonian Magazine: “The Hidden Christians of Japan”
   • An article detailing the history and legacy of the hidden Christians, offering a modern perspective on their enduring faith.
   • Smithsonian Magazine
5. BBC History: “Christianity in Japan”
   • A concise overview of the history of Christianity in Japan, including key events and figures.
   • BBC History

Archives and Primary Sources

1. “Letters and Reports from Jesuit Missionaries in Japan”
   • A collection of primary source documents from the Jesuit missionaries, detailing their experiences and observations during their missions in Japan.
2. “The Tokugawa Edicts”
   • Translations of the various edicts issued by the Tokugawa shogunate, including those related to the suppression of Christianity.
3. “The Diaries of Francis Xavier”
   • The personal writings of Francis Xavier, providing insights into his mission and the early interactions between the Jesuits and the Japanese.

These references provide a comprehensive foundation for understanding the complex history of Christianity in Japan, from its introduction and initial spread to the periods of persecution and eventual resurgence.